Reproduced from Asian Agri-History Vol. 9, No. 3, 2005 (177–199)
On Fish in Manasollasa (c. 1131 AD)
Nalini Sadhale1 and Y L Nene2
1. B-1, Kanakalaxmi Apartments, Street No. 6, Hardikar Bagh, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Andhra
Pradesh, India (email: nalinisadhale@vsnl.net)
2. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500 009, Andhra Pradesh, India
(email: ynene@satyam.net.in)
Abstract
We came across a very interesting description of fishing for royal recreation in the 12th century
compendium in Sanskrit titled Abhilashitarthachintamani or Manasollasa and authored by the
Western Chalukya King Someshvardeva (1126–1138 AD). The text includes description of 35 kinds of
marine and fresh water fishes, each with a distinct name, the feeds provided to few fishes, and the art
of angling. The text also includes a brief description of cooking fish. We have made an attempt to
identify Latin names of the fishes from the names given by Someshvardeva. Fishes described in the
text include sharks, a sawfish, a triggerfish, garfishes, carps, croakers, a spiny eel, catfishes, barbels,
murrels, a ray fish, gobies, and snakeheads. Only half a dozen of these were nurtured for the royal
game of angling. It is evident that considerable knowledge of fishes was gathered almost 900 years
ago, but was ignored in subsequent centuries.
We had earlier published a series of three articles containing the English translation of Sanskrit verses
on elephants as described by the Western Chalukya King Someshvardeva (Sadhale and Nene, 2004a;
2004b; 2004c). Someshvardeva or Someshvara III, who ruled from Kalyani (near Bidar in northern
Karnataka) between 1126 and 1138 AD, composed Manasollasa or Abhilashitarthachintamani
(Shamasastry, 1926) around 1131 AD. The authors had given earlier some details about this
compilation (Sadhale and Nene, 2004a; 2004b; 2004c). The Western Chalukya Empire included
substantial portions of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra by the time of the rule of
Someshvardeva. It would be safe to assume that the languages spoken in his reign must have been
Kannada, Marathi, and Telugu. Also knowledge of fishes from the Andhra coast on the east to the
Maharashtra and Karnataka coasts on the west must have been available to Someshvardeva. In
Manasollasa, Chapter 14 of Section IV deals with royal recreation through fishing and has 52 verses
(verses 1381–1432). In addition, there are 13 verses (verses 1524–1536) in Section III, Chapter 13
describing preparations of fish as food.
By the time we had more or less completed the work of identifying Latin names of the fishes that had
been given names in Sanskrit in Manasollasa, we came across an excellent paper by Hora (1951),
which gives details about Manasollasa, the Sanskrit text related to fish, its translation in English, and
also the identification of fishes as well as the art of angling. Hora’s paper provided us with an
opportunity to confirm his work or express disagreements, especially in the identification of fish
species.
Translation of verses 1381–1432
(Manasollasa: Section IV, Chapter 14)
Royal recreation: fishing
Types of fish
1381. And now I describe below the game of fishing which is so dear to the kings. There are several
species of fish and it is not possible to count them all.
1382. Still I shall describe those that are relevant to this sport. There are two main categories of fish
according as they are born with plain skin or with scales.
1383. Each is further divided into two groups (depending on the size), viz., big and small. Charmaja
(scaleless) are those that are born with plain skin resembling a tree bark and not having scales.
1384. Shalkaja (scaly) is stated to be those that are born with scales or shells as the outer part of their
body. Again some are born in sea while others in rivers.
1385, 1386a. Here are some of the names to be remembered; sora, shringasora, chanvilocha, bala,
kantakara, and sankuchaka are scaleless varieties born in sea.
1386b, 1387a. Kovasaka, khirida, pathina, and simhatundaka are fishes of huge size and are born in
rivers.
1387b, 1388a. One is called patala-picchaka and has a crest of red color. Yet another is called
dantapatala. Both are of medium size, born in rivers and belong to the scaleless kinds.
1388b, 1389. Gagdhara, gojjala, vidruva, and a fish called kantharaya are of a small size born in the
rivers. Pandimana is a large fish belonging to the scaly kind.
1390, 1391a. Pallaka and tomara are medium-sized sea fish. Mahashila, kahlava, nadaka, vadisha,
and vatagi are large river fishes of the scaly type.
1391b, 1392a. Rohita, swarnamina, and khandalipa are powerful, though medium-sized river fishes
belonging to the scaly type.
1392b, 1393a. Marila, tumbaya, and vanchi are medium-sized fishes of the
scaly type. These three do not eat flour-balls and are meat-eaters.
1393b, 1394. Kaurattha swims six to seven yojanas (according to one calculation, yojana = 4 miles;
krosha = 9 miles) from a big river adjacent to a mountain or from a sea into a small river, and lives in
deep and large lakes.
1395a. This is the place from where they can be caught and not the sea.
1395b, 1396. Large kovakiya fish of the scaly type lives in a river in a place full of rocks and devoid
of mire. The medium-sized koraka and others live deep inside a river at a place full of rocks.
1397, 1398a. Rohita and such other fishes live in a sandy place deep inside the river while pathina and
others along with turtles live in very large lakes, undisturbed by running water and full of mud.
1398b, 1399. Thogyara, tumbaya, and vami live in water reaching up to naval, in the crevices of rocks
either at the forepart or rear of the lakes or even in the perilous middle, bends, or islands as they
please.
The food
1400. Fishes should be fed ground sesame, lumps of flour, or flour of parched grains, morning and
evening.
1401–1402. Kahlava, etc. should be fed on balls of the size of bilva fruit (Bengal quince; Aegle
marmelos) made from the roasted flour of chickpea mixed with cooked rice. The flour along with
beeswax should be mixed well in water along with ground sesame seeds mixed with cooked rice.
1403. Rohita and such other fishes should be fed on roasted flour of kusumbha (safflower) mixed
with cooked rice and grit of barley meal, shaped into balls of the size of badari (Ziziphus mauritiana).
1404. Vadisha fish should be fed on crushed leaves of bilva (Bengal quince) mixed with barley meal,
made into balls of the size of mango fruit.
1405. The wise should feed kovakiyas by scattering before them balls of the size of dhatri (emblic
myrobalan; Emblica officinalis) fruit made out of the same mixture and on sesame and pieces of
raven.
1406. Foul-smelling meat pieces should be given to pathinas and it is wise to feed the fish called
simhatundaka on dhichakas (?).
1407. Marila should be given crab flesh with effort. The wise should feed turtles or roasted flesh of
rats.
1408a. Small fishes should be provided with earthworms or with flesh.
1408b–1410a. At the places from where water is fetched and at the banks of ponds, arrangements
should be made (by the king) to nourish fishes carefully in this manner and being informed by
attendants, the king should gather together ropes and sticks to catch them.
The fishing rope
1410b–1412a. The king should order good strings to be made with the sturdy strands of murva
(Sanseviera roxburghiana), kanduka (betelnut tree; Areca catechu), or arka (Calotropis gigantea), or
with thin lotus fibers. Among these, strings made with murva are the best. Those made with kanduka
or arka are of medium quality and those made with cotton fibers are of an inferior quality. The
gradation in quality is due to difference in strength.
1412b, 1413a. An expert should make good strings uniformly lengthened out like the lamp-wicks,
with three strands, whether thick, medium, or thin.
1413b, 1415a. The maximum length according to the experts should be a thousand cubits (literally,
two hundred measures of two extended arms). Never should a string be made less than ten cubits
(literally, two measures of two extended arms) in length. Horse’s hair is the lower limit for thinness.
The rope must not be thinner than the stalk between the mango fruit and the twig to which it is
attached.
The rod
1415b–1417a. A cane (or bamboo) or a thorn-shaped branch coming up from the ground or a branch
of coconut (Cocos nucifera) is recommended for making the rod. It should gradually taper resembling
the tail of a chameleon. It should be made from a bamboo-half, having closely positioned knots and
no holes.
1417b–1419a. The circumference at the bottom of a big rod should not
exceed the measure of six angulas (where an angula is a measure of a finger’s breadth equivalent to
eight barley corns) while that of the small should not exceed half of that measure. Experts have
recommended angling rod made from cane that is neither too long nor too short, neither too flaccid
nor too rigid.
1419b, 1420a. The one made from a branch of a coconut tree should have a
(circumference ?) size of ten angulas and should have gradually tapering shape, too. It should not
have too compactly positioned knots.
1420b–1422a. The angle should be curved like a hook or like a horse’s
hoof or like a makanda (mango) fruit or resembling a crab or of the shape of a monkey. It should be
sharp and strong made with iron, broad at bottom but narrow (pointed) at the tip.
1422b, 1423. The spot on the fishhook for tying the rope should be round or like a plank, and that
depresses at the center. A thick rope should not be tied on to a thick rod, or a thin string on a thin rod.
1424. The thickness or the length should be determined by (the quantity of) water and (strength and
size of the) fish. The hook proportionate to the rope should be tied to the end of the rope.
1425. A peacock feather should be fixed in the middle of the rope and at the bottom of the rod,
another long rope, like a tail, should be fixed.
The fishing
1426, 1427. For the purpose of attracting the fish, the king should arrange to get fixed to the tip of the
hook, flour-item or flesh as per the liking of the particular fish, placing the same under water, at the
fishing spot. He, then, should watch the feather with a concentrated mind.
1428, 1429. When a fish touches the hook to eat the food-item fixed to it, shaking it (the feather) in
the process, he should notice the change instantly and cause the strike. The fishes eating either flesh or
other food-item move forward. When the fish gets strung on to the hook it struggles with full force.
1430. The fisher should, therefore, draw it out while it is weak. In the event of its gaining strength, he
should let go the rod and should gradually pull the fish out taking care to see that the rope does not
give way.
1431a. When the rod is released, he should otherwise drag out the fish by pulling the tail-rope.
Ending
1431b, 1432. Thus, King Soma, the Lord of the Earth, the most powerful among the mortal kings, has
described this sport of fishing, a sport related to fishes, for the purpose of recreation.
Translation of verses
1524–1536
(Manasollasa: Section III, Chapter 13)
The royal food: fish preparations
1524. In the preparation of scaled fishes, the scales must be first removed with effort. Then if the fish
are big they should be cut into pieces. If small, they can be used in the same (natural) form.
1525. Heads of fishes must be cut away (like the tail-part of birds). Intestines should be removed after
cutting open the belly.
1526. [The text does not make sense, particularly the first line that is printed with a question mark.
The verse appears to refer to certain names of the fish-species. It reads something like this: Kahnaka,
roshta (perhaps it could be misprint for proshthi), and vadisha should be burned with khavala,
chachuka, and pathina after cutting off their heads.]
1527–1529. Rub oil and salt on fish so that they become slimy and the odor fades away. Afterwards
wash them with water mixed with turmeric paste. Tie them in a piece of cloth and press to squeeze out
all the water inside. Then mix them with the anakas (?) previously cooked thoroughly and kept ready
for the purpose. After some time the cook should put down (from fire) the (earthen) dish and add
seasoning.
1530, 1531. Cut fishes into pieces and wash them well. Cook along with tamarind juice. Sprinkle well
with wheat flour. Fry in heated oil till brown. Add rock salt. Sprinkle powdered cardamom and
pepper.
1532. Cook fishes as per test, in anaka, oil, or smokeless fire as per the method described earlier.
1533, 1534. Cut fish into pieces, measuring four angulas (breadth of four angulas) each. Mix salt and
store in earthen jars. These are called kharakhandas (salted pieces) that can be preserved for a long
time. The cook should roast them in fire at the time of meals.
1535, 1536. Take out the scrotums of a fish and roast them in fire. When hard, cut into pieces and fry
in heated oil. Add powdered cardamom, pepper, and rock salt and season with asafetida.
Discussion
Types of fish
In all 35 names have been given by Someshvardeva with minimal information on their habitat (marine
or fresh water), presence or absence of scales (charmaja – scaleless; shalkaja – scaly), and size (large,
medium, small). Even this information is not given for each fish. As pointed out before the Western
Chalukya empire included people who spoke Kannada, Marathi, and Telugu. Names of fishes in these
languages, in addition to Sanskrit, were studied by us to understand the meaning of the fish names
given by Someshvardeva. We have used CSIR (1962), Watt (1890), and Buchanan (1807) for
identification of fishes.
Bala. This is a marine, scaleless, and possibly a large fish. Bala in Sanskrit connotes “powerful” or
“to injure”. Hora (1951) has wrongly read bala as baala meaning “ignorant person who does not
know, usually translated as fool”. A particular shark, Carcharhinus macloti Day, is called pala sorah,
which is a relatively small shark. We, therefore, suggest that bala stands for C. macloti.
Chanvilocha. It is described also as a marine and scaleless fish, and large size is implied. Chan in
Sanskrit could indicate “to injure or kill”, whereas lunch means “to tear” or “to pluck”. Hora (1951)
traced the name to the word vilochana in Sanskrit, meaning an eye, and suggested that this could be a
fish with “shining eyes”. Hora further suggested that this could be a species of sawfishes, Pristis sp.
We believe chanvilocha is Pristis microdon Latham, the small-toothed sawfish, found frequently in
Indian seas including the Mumbai area. Fishermen are scared of this fish as it can inflict serious
injuries when caught.
Dantapatala. In Sanskrit, danta means teeth and patala means red. Thus it should be a fish with red
teeth. Someshvardeva describes this fish as an inland, scaleless, medium-sized one. Hora (1951) has
identified this fish to be Eutropiichthys vacha Ham. We find it difficult to accept Hora’s identification
because E. vacha is found mostly in northern India and does not have red teeth. We suggest that
dantapatala is the trigger fish (Balistidae) Odonus niger Ruppel, which has red teeth and is scaleless
and medium-sized. It is a marine fish, but often found in inshore waters. It is present in Indo-Pacific
region (Wheeler, 1985). Though Indian workers have not described this fish, we would like to think
that this fish could have been present in northern Arabian Sea through to the Red Sea during the times
of Someshvardeva.
Gagdhara. Dhara in Sanskrit means possessing or holding. Gag does not have any specific
meaning. Hora (1951) has assumed that gag could be a phonetic variant of kag, which means a crow.
Hora suggested that this could be a fish having a crow-like beak, which made Xenedoton cancila
Ham. a good candidate. Xenedoton cancila is a garfish and has a long well toothed jaw. It is an inland,
scaly, and small fish. This fish is called kaduru in Telugu, which is phonetically close to the word
gagdhara. We agree with Hora’s identification.
Gojjala. This is an inland, scaly, and small fish. In Sanskrit gochara means within the range, such as
hearing or visible. The word gochi means a plant with sharp leaves. Hora (1951) suggested a different
interpretation; jala means water and goj means shallow. On this basis, Hora identified the fish as
Ophiocephalus punctatus Bl. We find that another fish, which fits in with the features mentioned
above and which is an excellent food, is Ompok bimaculatus Bl. It is a catfish. In Kannada, it is
known as godla, which is phonetically close to gojjala.
Kahlava. This has been mentioned as an inland, scaly, and large fish. If we try to trace the origin of
kahlava in Sanskrit, ka can mean water, lhaad means to be happy. Kahlava could thus mean
something from water that brings happiness. Also we believe the word catla has no origin in Latin
and probably the Sanskrit name kahlava was used for renaming the fish as Catla catla Ham., which is
a popular carp. Hora (1951) identified the fish as Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus (Jerdon), with which
we do not agree.
Kantakara. It has been described as a marine fish with no scales, but nothing has been mentioned
about the size. However, because kantakara has been grouped with sharks such as sora and
shringasora, we have assumed this one to be a large fish. The word kantakara in Sanskrit means one
that pricks with thorns. Hora (1951) suggested that the fish could belong to a species of a genus of
catfish eels, Plotosus. Species of Plotosus have spiny fins. We believe kantakara is the name of
Plotosus canius Ham., which is a common coastal and estuarine fish.
Kantharaya. This one has been described to be a small, inland, and scaly fish. Kantha in Sanskrit
means throat or voice and raya may mean raja (king) or speed. The whole word kantharaya could
mean a royal (impressive) neck. Hora (1951) identified kantharaya as Barilius bendelisis Ham.,
because the latter has a dark shoulder process, which could be likened to neck. It is a “trout” common
in the Western Ghats (Buchanan, 1807). We agree with Hora’s identification.
Kaurattha. The description given by Someshvardeva is minimal. He mentioned that kaurattha is a
marine fish that migrates through rivers to large lakes where it can be caught. There is no mention
about presence or absence of scales and its size. In Sanskrit, rathir means speedy, kur refers to sound,
and kaula connotes living in a family. Hora (1951) suggested that kaurattha could be Hilsa ilisha
Ham., but was not certain. Taking into account the meanings in Sanskrit, we suggest that kaurattha
could be Pseudosciaena diacanthus Lac. as this fish migrates to shallow areas of rivers, is a croaker
(ghol in Marathi), and lives in schools.
Khandalipa. This is an inland, scaly, and medium-sized fish. The root of the word khandalipa can
be traced in Sanskrit; khanda means broken and lipa means to cover or overspread. Hora (1951)
suggested the name Mastacembelus armatus Lacel. with which we agree. It is a spiny eel.
Khirida. This fish is riverine, large, and possibly scaleless. The name could not be traced to Sanskrit.
Hora (1951) tentatively identified it as Pangasius pangasius Ham., a catfish. Taking a clue from a
Marathi name, khirurh, we suggest khirida to be Rita gogra Sykes or Rita pavimentata Valenciannes,
which is common in the rivers of the Deccan and is also a catfish.
Koraka. This is an inland, medium-sized fish. No mention was made about scales. The word koraka
in Sanskrit would indicate a bud. Kur, as pointed out earlier, suggests making sound. In Indian
languages, there is a name karoua or korake for Pomadasys hasta Bl. (Watt, 1890), which is
considered a marine fish. However, it is known to enter estuaries and is found in almost fresh water
(Wheeler, 1985). We, therefore, suggest that koraka is P. hasta, which is a grunter. Hora (1951)
admitted his inability to identify the fish.
Kovakiya. This is an inland, scaly, and large fish. In Sanskrit kuvaak means a bad utterance, which
would indicate a fish belonging to croakers, etc. Hora (1951) tentatively suggested that kovakiya
could be Polynemous tetradactyles Shaw. We believe kovakiya fits in better with the fish known to be
common in Mumbai area, Pseudosciaena sina C., which is a croaker.
Kovasaka. This is a large fish found inland. Someshvardeva does not mention whether it is scaly or
scaleless, but the name appears in the text along with sharks. The word kovasaka in Sanskrit would
mean someone who inhabits filthy or stinking place. Hora (1951) suggested Mystus aor Ham. or M.
seenghala Sykes. We believe kovasaka could be M. seenghala, a catfish.
Mahashila. Someshvardeva mentions this to be a riverine, scaly, large fish. Mahashila in Sanskrit
could mean a large stone-like (powerful) fish. This name is very similar to the famous mahaseer fish
(Tor tor Ham.) of India. Hora (1951) suggested that mahashila could be South Indian Barbus (Tor)
mussulah Sykes or B. (Tor) khudree Sykes. Barbus khudree is not a large fish. Hora (1951) did not
consider Tor tor because it is present in northern India. We find that Day (Watt, 1890) mentions the
presence of T. tor all over India. We, therefore, suggest that mahashila is T. tor, a barb.
Marila. The nearest word in Sanskrit is maraal which means soft, tender, or yellowish red. It has
been described as a scaly, medium-sized fish. Its name appears with riverine fishes and also
Someshvardeva mentions that crabs have to be fed to this fish, obviously in a pond. Hora (1951)
identified it to be Ophicephalus striatus Bloch. Because a very similar fish is called maral in Marathi,
we suggest marila to be Channa (Ophicephalus) marulius Ham., which is a murrel. This fish makes
excellent food.
Nadaka. The word nadaka (or nalaka) in Sanskrit suggested a tubular shape or a reed-like
appearance. It is an inland, scaly, and large fish. Hora (1951) has identified this fish as Barbus
curmuca Ham., a barb, which is common in waters of Western Ghats. We agree with Hora’s
identification.
Pallaka. The word pala or palali in Sanskrit means heap of flesh. It has been described as a marine
fish of medium size. Presence or absence of scales has not been specifically mentioned. However,
pallaka probably is a scaly fish since it is grouped with scaly fishes, such as rohita, etc. Apte (1965)
mentions pallavaka as a kind of fish. Hora (1951) considered pallaka to be Luteanus roseus Day. We
disagree with Hora’s identifiction and suggest that pallaka is Hilsa ilisha Ham., which is known as
pala in Marathi and paliya in Kannada. Hilsa’s popularity as a table fish, in spite of numerous tiny
bones, is probably due to the high fat content. Hilsa belongs to the group commonly called ladyfishes.
Pandimana. This fish has been described as large and scaly, and possibly found in inland waters.
Pandu or panduriman in Sanskrit means pale or white and pandaa as “learned”. The word pandimana
in Sanskrit could mean, “liked by Brahmins”. Hora (1951) identified pandimana as Lates calcarifer
Bl. We believe pandimana to be the milkfish Chanos chanos Forsk. that is purely vegetarian in its
food habit, which relates to “learned” persons in the ancient Indian context. This fish is called pumin
in the Tulu language of Karnataka.
Patalapicchaka. This is a medium-sized, scaleless fish with a red crest and is found in rivers.
Picchaka in Sanskrit means tail. Hora (1951) identified it to be Clupisoma garua Ham. We do not
agree with Hora because C. garua is common only in northern India. We suggest that patalapicchaka
to be Mystus aor Ham., which has a dark caudal fin, and is a catfish.
Pathina. This has been described as a scaleless, large fish found in rivers. Paathi in Sanskrit means
someone who recites with the back moving back and forth in a sitting position. Amarkosha (Jha,
1999) mentions that pathina has one thousand molars. It is a fish that has been mentioned commonly
in the ancient literature of India, and was used in certain rituals. Hora (1951) identified it to be
Wallago attu Schn. and we agree with Hora’s identification. Pathina is a catfish.
Rohita. This has been described as scaly, medium-sized fish that inhabits rivers. Sanskrit literature
frequently mentions this name. Bhavaprakasha (Chunekar and Pandey, 1986) describes rohita as a red
fish that is best for human consumption. Rohita (or lohita) means red. Hora (1951) suggests rohita as
Labeo fimbriatus Bl. instead of L. rohita Ham. or popularly called rohu, because the latter is of a
rather large size, and not of medium size as described by Someshvardeva. However, we do not
consider Hora’s reason sufficiently strong. Many other authorities have consistently maintained that
rohita is L. rohita. Rohita also has a name (tambada masa = red fish) in Marathi. We, therefore,
maintain that rohita should be identified as L. rohita, which is a very commonly found carp.
Sankuchaka. In Sanskrit, sankuchaka means one that contracts itself. Someshvardeva described this
fish as a marine and scaleless fish; size was not mentioned but because it is grouped with sharks, we
assume it to be large. Apte’s Sanskrit-English dictionary (Apte, 1965) mentions sankocha as a skatefish.
Hora (1951) did not try to identify the species. Since skates and rays are considered
interchangeable groups, we tried to widen our range for identification. We find the name sankusha
used in India for Dasyatis (Pastinachus) sephen Forsk. and also this fish is found commonly on the
west coast of India. We suggest D. sephen is sankuchaka.
Shringasora. This has been described as a marine and scaleless fish, which by implication is large
in size. Sora means shark and shringa means horns. Probably because of a printing error, we find the
table in Hora (1951) shows it to be a sawfish. Shringasora clearly fits in with a hammer-headed shark,
Sphyrna blochii C., which is found off the west coast of India.
Simhatundaka. This one has been described as a large and riverine fish, presumably scaleless.
Simhatundaka in Sanskrit would indicate lion-faced. A catfish with a ferocious appearance and
behavior would be the obvious candidate. Hora (1951) suggested Bagarius bagarius Ham., which is
ferocious and has under-hung mouth. It is called baghar (tiger-like) in some Indian languages. We
agree with Hora’s identification.
Sora. Someshvardeva described this one as a marine, scaleless, and obviously a large fish. No
meaning can be traced in Sanskrit. In Telugu, sora is used for any shark. Sora is the first name listed
by Someshvardeva and was clubbed with other sharks. It must be an impressively large fish
commonly seen in Indian seas. Hora (1951) believed that the name sora was used in plural sense for
several sharks. We suggest that the name sora could have been used for the largest shark, Galeocerdo
tigrinus N.H., found in both west and east coast waters.
Swarnamina. This has been described as an inland, scaly, medium-sized fish, which in Sanskrit
would mean a golden fish. Names such as sarana (similar to swarna, gold) in Bengal and Orissa and
kannuka (kanakam in Sanskrit also means gold) in Andhra help us to identify this barb fish as Barbus
sarana Ham. Hora (1951) too has identified this fish as B. sarana.
Thogyara. This has been described as an inland fish. Other details are missing. It has not been
possible to trace thogyara’s origin in Sanskrit. Hora (1951) failed to identify this fish. Taking a clue
from two local names, yerrathok-mosu in Telugu, and tharimeenu in Kannada, we tentatively suggest
that this fish is Cirrhinus reba Ham., a carp found in fresh waters all over India.
Tomara. This one has been described as a medium-sized marine fish and most likely, scaly. The
word tomara in Sanskrit means a spear-like weapon or a forceful stroke. Hora (1951) suggested that
tomara could be the garfish (needle fish) Belone annulata Day. We agree with Hora’s identification.
Tumbaya. This one is a scaly, medium-sized fish most likely inhabiting inland waters. Tumbaya
means similar to a long gourd. According to Hora (1951), tumbuki in Telugu means puffed cheeks.
Using the latter meaning Hora suggested the name Glossogobius giuris Ham., and we agree. This
species belongs to the group called gobies.
Vadisha. This has been described as a riverine, scaly, large fish. It was fed leaves and barley,
suggesting a “vegetarian” diet. Hora (1951) tentatively identified vadisha as Notopterus chitala Ham.,
which is carnivorous. The word vadisha can be a phonetic variant of badisha or balisha. Taking a clue
from the word balisha, which indicates strong or powerful. We suggest vadisha to be Acrossocheilus
hexagonolepsis McClell., which is a barb.
Vami. This is a fish that is most likely an inland fish. Someshvardeva made no mention about its size
or scales. Vamah in Sanskrit means a snake, vam means vomit, and vaama means crooked. Hora
(1951) was not able to identify the fish. Taking a clue from the Sanskrit meaning of vamah as snake,
we suggest that vami should be the snakehead, Channa gachua Ham., which is found in fresh waters,
has scales, and is a small fish.
Vanchi. This has been described as a scaly, medium-sized fish, which probably inhabits rivers. In
Sanskrit, vaanchhi means desired, vacha is a fish name, and vanch means to deceive. For some reason
Hora (1951) suggested that vanchi could be Silonopangasius taakri Sykes, which is a medium-sized
fish but is without scales. He ruled out Silonia silondia Sykes as vanchi, even though its name in
Telugu is wanjou, because it is large and usually found in northern India. Another species, however,
Silonia childreni Sykes is found in Godavari and Krishna rivers and is also called wanjou in Telugu.
We believe vanchi should be S. childreni. This species belongs to family Schilbeidae.
Vatagi. This one is an inland, scaly, and large fish. In Sanskrit vat indicates a string. Hora (1951) did
not identify this fish. We believe it should be Channa leucopunctatus Sykes. Though C.
leucopunctatus is a marine fish, it is known to be present inland in the Deccan and the length can be
92 cm. It is also a snakehead and has an elongated body that could be considered string-like.
Vidruva. This is a riverine, scaly, and small fish. In Sanskrit vidruva may indicate something moving
fast or frightened. Hora (1951) stated that this fish could belong to genera such as Chela, Rasbora,
Danio, etc. We believe vidruva should be Oxygaster clupeoides Bl., a carp that is found all over India
and is a fast-moving fish.
A complete list of all the above fishes with their Sanskrit and Latin names has been given in Table 1.
The fish food
Someshvardeva mentioned only a few fishes that must have been popular for angling. These fishes
were kahlava (Catla catla), rohita (Labeo rohita), vadisha (Acrossocheilus hexagonolepsis), kovakiya
(Pseudosciaena sina), pathina (Wallago attu), simhatundaka (Bagarius bagarius), and marila
(Channa marulius). Of these kahlava, rohita, and vadisha were fed with vegetarian items, kovakiya
with vegetarian and meat items, and pathina, simhatundaka, and marila were fed with flesh. Thus the
choice of food items is in line with our knowledge today.
Food items mentioned were: ground sesame, flours including roasted flours of chickpea (Cicer
arietinum), cooked rice, and roasted flour of safflower mixed with cooked rice.
We would like to quote here comments from Hora (1951), which are valid today.
“. . . Somesvara shows a greater insight into the feeding habits of the fishes by dividing them into
groups and then prescribing a suitable ground bait for each group or kind. Further Somesvara also
prescribes the limit in size for the morsel of each variety of fish. He wants the ground bait to be
prepared into balls but he also indicates that feeding should be done morning and evening from the
steps used for taking water. The bottom is probably not steeply shelving in this place and the balls do
not roll away. MacDonald (MacDonald, A.St.J. 1948. Circumventing the mahseer and other sporting
fish in India and Burma. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India) suggests a mixture of mud
with food but Somesvara feeds fishes on articles of food only. . . . On the whole the technique of
ground baiting seems to have been better developed in Somesvara’s time than at the present day.”
The fishing rope, rod, and bait
We think Someshvardeva has given an excellent description of how to make the ropes, required for
angling, from the local resources. He described materials from which ropes can be made of different
strengths, lengths, and thickness. Likewise a very useful description of the rods, hooks, baits, and
striking, and playing fish has been given.
Fish preparations
The thirteen verses (1524 –1536) basically describe the procedure to clean and cook the fish, which is
not different from what is done today. Preservation by salting cleaned fishes has also been mentioned.
Table 1. Names of fishes in Manasollasa and their Latin equivalents.
Sanskrit name Devnagari script Latin name
Bala bjlj Carcharhinus macloti Day
Chanvilocha cjNivjljocj Pristis microdon Latham
Dantapatala dntjpjhZlj Odonus niger Ruppel
Gagdhara gjhgDjr Xenentodon cancila Ham.
Gojjala gjoJJjlj Ompok bimaculatus Bl.
Kahlava k*ljvj Catla catla Ham.
Kantakara kqZkhr Plotosus canius Ham.
Kantharaya kqVryj Barilius bendelisis Ham.
Kaurattha kOrtTj Pseudosciaena diacanthus Lac.
Khandalipa xjqLhiljpj Mastacembelus armatus Lacel.
Khirida ixjrIL Rita gogra Sykes
Koraka kork Pomadasys hasta Bl.
Kovakiya kovjhkIyj Pseudosciaena sina C.
Kovasaka kovjhsjk Mystus seenghala Sykes
Mahashila mjHhwjIlj Tor tor Ham.
Marila mjirlj Channa marulius Ham.
Nadaka njLk Barbus curmuca Ham.
Pallaka pjlljk Hilsa ilisha Ham.
Pandimana pjqLImjhnj Chanos chanos Forsk.
Patalapicchaka pjhZljipjcCk Mystus aor Ham.
Pathina pjhVInj Wallago attu Schn.
Rohita roiHtj Labeo rohita Ham.
Sankuchaka sjNkucjk Dasyatis sephen Forsk.
Shringasora W\Ngjsjor Sphyrna blochii C.
Simhatundaka isjNHtjuqLk Bagarius bagarius Ham.
Sora sjor Galeocerdo tigrinus N.H.
Swarnamina svjqj[mjInj Barbus sarana Ham.
Thogyara Tjogyjr Cirrihinus reba Ham.
Tomara tjomjr Belone annulata Day
Tumbaya tjumbjyj Glossogobius giuris Ham.
Vadisha vjiLwj Acrossocheilus hexagonolepsis McClell.
Vami vjhmjI Channa gachua Ham.
Vanchi vjh#cjI Silonia childreni Sykes
Vatagi vjZgjI Channa leucopunctatus Sykes
Vidruva ivjd`uvj Oxygaster clupeoides Bl.
Conclusion
It is clear that a systematic body of knowledge of both marine and inland fishes had accumulated in
India by 12th century
AD. Recognition of this knowledge was never recorded properly either by the Mughals or by the
British. Hora (1951) tried to take this ancient knowledge to the fishery scientists of India. However,
Indian scientists in general were looking only “westwards” then and apparently did not take Hora’s
paper seriously. It is high time we look for documents that would reveal our wisdom on this subject. It
is relevant to mention here a statement from Hora (1951).
“In (my) account, I have assessed point by point Somesvara’s knowledge about the sporting fishes of
India and the art of angling by comparison with the most up-to-date work on angling for Indian
sporting fishes by MacDonald (reference cited earlier) recently published by the Bombay Natural
History Society. In the absence of records of any observational data, which must have formed the
basis of the knowledge embodied in Matsyavinoda, one must wonder as to the length of time that our
ancients must have taken to accumulate so much factual and deductive knowledge. In some respects,
it has not been surpassed even now.”
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On Fish in Manasollasa (c. 1131 AD)
Nalini Sadhale1 and Y L Nene2
1. B-1, Kanakalaxmi Apartments, Street No. 6, Hardikar Bagh, Himayatnagar, Hyderabad 500 029, Andhra
Pradesh, India (email: nalinisadhale@vsnl.net)
2. Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500 009, Andhra Pradesh, India
(email: ynene@satyam.net.in)
Abstract
We came across a very interesting description of fishing for royal recreation in the 12th century
compendium in Sanskrit titled Abhilashitarthachintamani or Manasollasa and authored by the
Western Chalukya King Someshvardeva (1126–1138 AD). The text includes description of 35 kinds of
marine and fresh water fishes, each with a distinct name, the feeds provided to few fishes, and the art
of angling. The text also includes a brief description of cooking fish. We have made an attempt to
identify Latin names of the fishes from the names given by Someshvardeva. Fishes described in the
text include sharks, a sawfish, a triggerfish, garfishes, carps, croakers, a spiny eel, catfishes, barbels,
murrels, a ray fish, gobies, and snakeheads. Only half a dozen of these were nurtured for the royal
game of angling. It is evident that considerable knowledge of fishes was gathered almost 900 years
ago, but was ignored in subsequent centuries.
We had earlier published a series of three articles containing the English translation of Sanskrit verses
on elephants as described by the Western Chalukya King Someshvardeva (Sadhale and Nene, 2004a;
2004b; 2004c). Someshvardeva or Someshvara III, who ruled from Kalyani (near Bidar in northern
Karnataka) between 1126 and 1138 AD, composed Manasollasa or Abhilashitarthachintamani
(Shamasastry, 1926) around 1131 AD. The authors had given earlier some details about this
compilation (Sadhale and Nene, 2004a; 2004b; 2004c). The Western Chalukya Empire included
substantial portions of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra by the time of the rule of
Someshvardeva. It would be safe to assume that the languages spoken in his reign must have been
Kannada, Marathi, and Telugu. Also knowledge of fishes from the Andhra coast on the east to the
Maharashtra and Karnataka coasts on the west must have been available to Someshvardeva. In
Manasollasa, Chapter 14 of Section IV deals with royal recreation through fishing and has 52 verses
(verses 1381–1432). In addition, there are 13 verses (verses 1524–1536) in Section III, Chapter 13
describing preparations of fish as food.
By the time we had more or less completed the work of identifying Latin names of the fishes that had
been given names in Sanskrit in Manasollasa, we came across an excellent paper by Hora (1951),
which gives details about Manasollasa, the Sanskrit text related to fish, its translation in English, and
also the identification of fishes as well as the art of angling. Hora’s paper provided us with an
opportunity to confirm his work or express disagreements, especially in the identification of fish
species.
Translation of verses 1381–1432
(Manasollasa: Section IV, Chapter 14)
Royal recreation: fishing
Types of fish
1381. And now I describe below the game of fishing which is so dear to the kings. There are several
species of fish and it is not possible to count them all.
1382. Still I shall describe those that are relevant to this sport. There are two main categories of fish
according as they are born with plain skin or with scales.
1383. Each is further divided into two groups (depending on the size), viz., big and small. Charmaja
(scaleless) are those that are born with plain skin resembling a tree bark and not having scales.
1384. Shalkaja (scaly) is stated to be those that are born with scales or shells as the outer part of their
body. Again some are born in sea while others in rivers.
1385, 1386a. Here are some of the names to be remembered; sora, shringasora, chanvilocha, bala,
kantakara, and sankuchaka are scaleless varieties born in sea.
1386b, 1387a. Kovasaka, khirida, pathina, and simhatundaka are fishes of huge size and are born in
rivers.
1387b, 1388a. One is called patala-picchaka and has a crest of red color. Yet another is called
dantapatala. Both are of medium size, born in rivers and belong to the scaleless kinds.
1388b, 1389. Gagdhara, gojjala, vidruva, and a fish called kantharaya are of a small size born in the
rivers. Pandimana is a large fish belonging to the scaly kind.
1390, 1391a. Pallaka and tomara are medium-sized sea fish. Mahashila, kahlava, nadaka, vadisha,
and vatagi are large river fishes of the scaly type.
1391b, 1392a. Rohita, swarnamina, and khandalipa are powerful, though medium-sized river fishes
belonging to the scaly type.
1392b, 1393a. Marila, tumbaya, and vanchi are medium-sized fishes of the
scaly type. These three do not eat flour-balls and are meat-eaters.
1393b, 1394. Kaurattha swims six to seven yojanas (according to one calculation, yojana = 4 miles;
krosha = 9 miles) from a big river adjacent to a mountain or from a sea into a small river, and lives in
deep and large lakes.
1395a. This is the place from where they can be caught and not the sea.
1395b, 1396. Large kovakiya fish of the scaly type lives in a river in a place full of rocks and devoid
of mire. The medium-sized koraka and others live deep inside a river at a place full of rocks.
1397, 1398a. Rohita and such other fishes live in a sandy place deep inside the river while pathina and
others along with turtles live in very large lakes, undisturbed by running water and full of mud.
1398b, 1399. Thogyara, tumbaya, and vami live in water reaching up to naval, in the crevices of rocks
either at the forepart or rear of the lakes or even in the perilous middle, bends, or islands as they
please.
The food
1400. Fishes should be fed ground sesame, lumps of flour, or flour of parched grains, morning and
evening.
1401–1402. Kahlava, etc. should be fed on balls of the size of bilva fruit (Bengal quince; Aegle
marmelos) made from the roasted flour of chickpea mixed with cooked rice. The flour along with
beeswax should be mixed well in water along with ground sesame seeds mixed with cooked rice.
1403. Rohita and such other fishes should be fed on roasted flour of kusumbha (safflower) mixed
with cooked rice and grit of barley meal, shaped into balls of the size of badari (Ziziphus mauritiana).
1404. Vadisha fish should be fed on crushed leaves of bilva (Bengal quince) mixed with barley meal,
made into balls of the size of mango fruit.
1405. The wise should feed kovakiyas by scattering before them balls of the size of dhatri (emblic
myrobalan; Emblica officinalis) fruit made out of the same mixture and on sesame and pieces of
raven.
1406. Foul-smelling meat pieces should be given to pathinas and it is wise to feed the fish called
simhatundaka on dhichakas (?).
1407. Marila should be given crab flesh with effort. The wise should feed turtles or roasted flesh of
rats.
1408a. Small fishes should be provided with earthworms or with flesh.
1408b–1410a. At the places from where water is fetched and at the banks of ponds, arrangements
should be made (by the king) to nourish fishes carefully in this manner and being informed by
attendants, the king should gather together ropes and sticks to catch them.
The fishing rope
1410b–1412a. The king should order good strings to be made with the sturdy strands of murva
(Sanseviera roxburghiana), kanduka (betelnut tree; Areca catechu), or arka (Calotropis gigantea), or
with thin lotus fibers. Among these, strings made with murva are the best. Those made with kanduka
or arka are of medium quality and those made with cotton fibers are of an inferior quality. The
gradation in quality is due to difference in strength.
1412b, 1413a. An expert should make good strings uniformly lengthened out like the lamp-wicks,
with three strands, whether thick, medium, or thin.
1413b, 1415a. The maximum length according to the experts should be a thousand cubits (literally,
two hundred measures of two extended arms). Never should a string be made less than ten cubits
(literally, two measures of two extended arms) in length. Horse’s hair is the lower limit for thinness.
The rope must not be thinner than the stalk between the mango fruit and the twig to which it is
attached.
The rod
1415b–1417a. A cane (or bamboo) or a thorn-shaped branch coming up from the ground or a branch
of coconut (Cocos nucifera) is recommended for making the rod. It should gradually taper resembling
the tail of a chameleon. It should be made from a bamboo-half, having closely positioned knots and
no holes.
1417b–1419a. The circumference at the bottom of a big rod should not
exceed the measure of six angulas (where an angula is a measure of a finger’s breadth equivalent to
eight barley corns) while that of the small should not exceed half of that measure. Experts have
recommended angling rod made from cane that is neither too long nor too short, neither too flaccid
nor too rigid.
1419b, 1420a. The one made from a branch of a coconut tree should have a
(circumference ?) size of ten angulas and should have gradually tapering shape, too. It should not
have too compactly positioned knots.
1420b–1422a. The angle should be curved like a hook or like a horse’s
hoof or like a makanda (mango) fruit or resembling a crab or of the shape of a monkey. It should be
sharp and strong made with iron, broad at bottom but narrow (pointed) at the tip.
1422b, 1423. The spot on the fishhook for tying the rope should be round or like a plank, and that
depresses at the center. A thick rope should not be tied on to a thick rod, or a thin string on a thin rod.
1424. The thickness or the length should be determined by (the quantity of) water and (strength and
size of the) fish. The hook proportionate to the rope should be tied to the end of the rope.
1425. A peacock feather should be fixed in the middle of the rope and at the bottom of the rod,
another long rope, like a tail, should be fixed.
The fishing
1426, 1427. For the purpose of attracting the fish, the king should arrange to get fixed to the tip of the
hook, flour-item or flesh as per the liking of the particular fish, placing the same under water, at the
fishing spot. He, then, should watch the feather with a concentrated mind.
1428, 1429. When a fish touches the hook to eat the food-item fixed to it, shaking it (the feather) in
the process, he should notice the change instantly and cause the strike. The fishes eating either flesh or
other food-item move forward. When the fish gets strung on to the hook it struggles with full force.
1430. The fisher should, therefore, draw it out while it is weak. In the event of its gaining strength, he
should let go the rod and should gradually pull the fish out taking care to see that the rope does not
give way.
1431a. When the rod is released, he should otherwise drag out the fish by pulling the tail-rope.
Ending
1431b, 1432. Thus, King Soma, the Lord of the Earth, the most powerful among the mortal kings, has
described this sport of fishing, a sport related to fishes, for the purpose of recreation.
Translation of verses
1524–1536
(Manasollasa: Section III, Chapter 13)
The royal food: fish preparations
1524. In the preparation of scaled fishes, the scales must be first removed with effort. Then if the fish
are big they should be cut into pieces. If small, they can be used in the same (natural) form.
1525. Heads of fishes must be cut away (like the tail-part of birds). Intestines should be removed after
cutting open the belly.
1526. [The text does not make sense, particularly the first line that is printed with a question mark.
The verse appears to refer to certain names of the fish-species. It reads something like this: Kahnaka,
roshta (perhaps it could be misprint for proshthi), and vadisha should be burned with khavala,
chachuka, and pathina after cutting off their heads.]
1527–1529. Rub oil and salt on fish so that they become slimy and the odor fades away. Afterwards
wash them with water mixed with turmeric paste. Tie them in a piece of cloth and press to squeeze out
all the water inside. Then mix them with the anakas (?) previously cooked thoroughly and kept ready
for the purpose. After some time the cook should put down (from fire) the (earthen) dish and add
seasoning.
1530, 1531. Cut fishes into pieces and wash them well. Cook along with tamarind juice. Sprinkle well
with wheat flour. Fry in heated oil till brown. Add rock salt. Sprinkle powdered cardamom and
pepper.
1532. Cook fishes as per test, in anaka, oil, or smokeless fire as per the method described earlier.
1533, 1534. Cut fish into pieces, measuring four angulas (breadth of four angulas) each. Mix salt and
store in earthen jars. These are called kharakhandas (salted pieces) that can be preserved for a long
time. The cook should roast them in fire at the time of meals.
1535, 1536. Take out the scrotums of a fish and roast them in fire. When hard, cut into pieces and fry
in heated oil. Add powdered cardamom, pepper, and rock salt and season with asafetida.
Discussion
Types of fish
In all 35 names have been given by Someshvardeva with minimal information on their habitat (marine
or fresh water), presence or absence of scales (charmaja – scaleless; shalkaja – scaly), and size (large,
medium, small). Even this information is not given for each fish. As pointed out before the Western
Chalukya empire included people who spoke Kannada, Marathi, and Telugu. Names of fishes in these
languages, in addition to Sanskrit, were studied by us to understand the meaning of the fish names
given by Someshvardeva. We have used CSIR (1962), Watt (1890), and Buchanan (1807) for
identification of fishes.
Bala. This is a marine, scaleless, and possibly a large fish. Bala in Sanskrit connotes “powerful” or
“to injure”. Hora (1951) has wrongly read bala as baala meaning “ignorant person who does not
know, usually translated as fool”. A particular shark, Carcharhinus macloti Day, is called pala sorah,
which is a relatively small shark. We, therefore, suggest that bala stands for C. macloti.
Chanvilocha. It is described also as a marine and scaleless fish, and large size is implied. Chan in
Sanskrit could indicate “to injure or kill”, whereas lunch means “to tear” or “to pluck”. Hora (1951)
traced the name to the word vilochana in Sanskrit, meaning an eye, and suggested that this could be a
fish with “shining eyes”. Hora further suggested that this could be a species of sawfishes, Pristis sp.
We believe chanvilocha is Pristis microdon Latham, the small-toothed sawfish, found frequently in
Indian seas including the Mumbai area. Fishermen are scared of this fish as it can inflict serious
injuries when caught.
Dantapatala. In Sanskrit, danta means teeth and patala means red. Thus it should be a fish with red
teeth. Someshvardeva describes this fish as an inland, scaleless, medium-sized one. Hora (1951) has
identified this fish to be Eutropiichthys vacha Ham. We find it difficult to accept Hora’s identification
because E. vacha is found mostly in northern India and does not have red teeth. We suggest that
dantapatala is the trigger fish (Balistidae) Odonus niger Ruppel, which has red teeth and is scaleless
and medium-sized. It is a marine fish, but often found in inshore waters. It is present in Indo-Pacific
region (Wheeler, 1985). Though Indian workers have not described this fish, we would like to think
that this fish could have been present in northern Arabian Sea through to the Red Sea during the times
of Someshvardeva.
Gagdhara. Dhara in Sanskrit means possessing or holding. Gag does not have any specific
meaning. Hora (1951) has assumed that gag could be a phonetic variant of kag, which means a crow.
Hora suggested that this could be a fish having a crow-like beak, which made Xenedoton cancila
Ham. a good candidate. Xenedoton cancila is a garfish and has a long well toothed jaw. It is an inland,
scaly, and small fish. This fish is called kaduru in Telugu, which is phonetically close to the word
gagdhara. We agree with Hora’s identification.
Gojjala. This is an inland, scaly, and small fish. In Sanskrit gochara means within the range, such as
hearing or visible. The word gochi means a plant with sharp leaves. Hora (1951) suggested a different
interpretation; jala means water and goj means shallow. On this basis, Hora identified the fish as
Ophiocephalus punctatus Bl. We find that another fish, which fits in with the features mentioned
above and which is an excellent food, is Ompok bimaculatus Bl. It is a catfish. In Kannada, it is
known as godla, which is phonetically close to gojjala.
Kahlava. This has been mentioned as an inland, scaly, and large fish. If we try to trace the origin of
kahlava in Sanskrit, ka can mean water, lhaad means to be happy. Kahlava could thus mean
something from water that brings happiness. Also we believe the word catla has no origin in Latin
and probably the Sanskrit name kahlava was used for renaming the fish as Catla catla Ham., which is
a popular carp. Hora (1951) identified the fish as Barbus (Puntius) carnaticus (Jerdon), with which
we do not agree.
Kantakara. It has been described as a marine fish with no scales, but nothing has been mentioned
about the size. However, because kantakara has been grouped with sharks such as sora and
shringasora, we have assumed this one to be a large fish. The word kantakara in Sanskrit means one
that pricks with thorns. Hora (1951) suggested that the fish could belong to a species of a genus of
catfish eels, Plotosus. Species of Plotosus have spiny fins. We believe kantakara is the name of
Plotosus canius Ham., which is a common coastal and estuarine fish.
Kantharaya. This one has been described to be a small, inland, and scaly fish. Kantha in Sanskrit
means throat or voice and raya may mean raja (king) or speed. The whole word kantharaya could
mean a royal (impressive) neck. Hora (1951) identified kantharaya as Barilius bendelisis Ham.,
because the latter has a dark shoulder process, which could be likened to neck. It is a “trout” common
in the Western Ghats (Buchanan, 1807). We agree with Hora’s identification.
Kaurattha. The description given by Someshvardeva is minimal. He mentioned that kaurattha is a
marine fish that migrates through rivers to large lakes where it can be caught. There is no mention
about presence or absence of scales and its size. In Sanskrit, rathir means speedy, kur refers to sound,
and kaula connotes living in a family. Hora (1951) suggested that kaurattha could be Hilsa ilisha
Ham., but was not certain. Taking into account the meanings in Sanskrit, we suggest that kaurattha
could be Pseudosciaena diacanthus Lac. as this fish migrates to shallow areas of rivers, is a croaker
(ghol in Marathi), and lives in schools.
Khandalipa. This is an inland, scaly, and medium-sized fish. The root of the word khandalipa can
be traced in Sanskrit; khanda means broken and lipa means to cover or overspread. Hora (1951)
suggested the name Mastacembelus armatus Lacel. with which we agree. It is a spiny eel.
Khirida. This fish is riverine, large, and possibly scaleless. The name could not be traced to Sanskrit.
Hora (1951) tentatively identified it as Pangasius pangasius Ham., a catfish. Taking a clue from a
Marathi name, khirurh, we suggest khirida to be Rita gogra Sykes or Rita pavimentata Valenciannes,
which is common in the rivers of the Deccan and is also a catfish.
Koraka. This is an inland, medium-sized fish. No mention was made about scales. The word koraka
in Sanskrit would indicate a bud. Kur, as pointed out earlier, suggests making sound. In Indian
languages, there is a name karoua or korake for Pomadasys hasta Bl. (Watt, 1890), which is
considered a marine fish. However, it is known to enter estuaries and is found in almost fresh water
(Wheeler, 1985). We, therefore, suggest that koraka is P. hasta, which is a grunter. Hora (1951)
admitted his inability to identify the fish.
Kovakiya. This is an inland, scaly, and large fish. In Sanskrit kuvaak means a bad utterance, which
would indicate a fish belonging to croakers, etc. Hora (1951) tentatively suggested that kovakiya
could be Polynemous tetradactyles Shaw. We believe kovakiya fits in better with the fish known to be
common in Mumbai area, Pseudosciaena sina C., which is a croaker.
Kovasaka. This is a large fish found inland. Someshvardeva does not mention whether it is scaly or
scaleless, but the name appears in the text along with sharks. The word kovasaka in Sanskrit would
mean someone who inhabits filthy or stinking place. Hora (1951) suggested Mystus aor Ham. or M.
seenghala Sykes. We believe kovasaka could be M. seenghala, a catfish.
Mahashila. Someshvardeva mentions this to be a riverine, scaly, large fish. Mahashila in Sanskrit
could mean a large stone-like (powerful) fish. This name is very similar to the famous mahaseer fish
(Tor tor Ham.) of India. Hora (1951) suggested that mahashila could be South Indian Barbus (Tor)
mussulah Sykes or B. (Tor) khudree Sykes. Barbus khudree is not a large fish. Hora (1951) did not
consider Tor tor because it is present in northern India. We find that Day (Watt, 1890) mentions the
presence of T. tor all over India. We, therefore, suggest that mahashila is T. tor, a barb.
Marila. The nearest word in Sanskrit is maraal which means soft, tender, or yellowish red. It has
been described as a scaly, medium-sized fish. Its name appears with riverine fishes and also
Someshvardeva mentions that crabs have to be fed to this fish, obviously in a pond. Hora (1951)
identified it to be Ophicephalus striatus Bloch. Because a very similar fish is called maral in Marathi,
we suggest marila to be Channa (Ophicephalus) marulius Ham., which is a murrel. This fish makes
excellent food.
Nadaka. The word nadaka (or nalaka) in Sanskrit suggested a tubular shape or a reed-like
appearance. It is an inland, scaly, and large fish. Hora (1951) has identified this fish as Barbus
curmuca Ham., a barb, which is common in waters of Western Ghats. We agree with Hora’s
identification.
Pallaka. The word pala or palali in Sanskrit means heap of flesh. It has been described as a marine
fish of medium size. Presence or absence of scales has not been specifically mentioned. However,
pallaka probably is a scaly fish since it is grouped with scaly fishes, such as rohita, etc. Apte (1965)
mentions pallavaka as a kind of fish. Hora (1951) considered pallaka to be Luteanus roseus Day. We
disagree with Hora’s identifiction and suggest that pallaka is Hilsa ilisha Ham., which is known as
pala in Marathi and paliya in Kannada. Hilsa’s popularity as a table fish, in spite of numerous tiny
bones, is probably due to the high fat content. Hilsa belongs to the group commonly called ladyfishes.
Pandimana. This fish has been described as large and scaly, and possibly found in inland waters.
Pandu or panduriman in Sanskrit means pale or white and pandaa as “learned”. The word pandimana
in Sanskrit could mean, “liked by Brahmins”. Hora (1951) identified pandimana as Lates calcarifer
Bl. We believe pandimana to be the milkfish Chanos chanos Forsk. that is purely vegetarian in its
food habit, which relates to “learned” persons in the ancient Indian context. This fish is called pumin
in the Tulu language of Karnataka.
Patalapicchaka. This is a medium-sized, scaleless fish with a red crest and is found in rivers.
Picchaka in Sanskrit means tail. Hora (1951) identified it to be Clupisoma garua Ham. We do not
agree with Hora because C. garua is common only in northern India. We suggest that patalapicchaka
to be Mystus aor Ham., which has a dark caudal fin, and is a catfish.
Pathina. This has been described as a scaleless, large fish found in rivers. Paathi in Sanskrit means
someone who recites with the back moving back and forth in a sitting position. Amarkosha (Jha,
1999) mentions that pathina has one thousand molars. It is a fish that has been mentioned commonly
in the ancient literature of India, and was used in certain rituals. Hora (1951) identified it to be
Wallago attu Schn. and we agree with Hora’s identification. Pathina is a catfish.
Rohita. This has been described as scaly, medium-sized fish that inhabits rivers. Sanskrit literature
frequently mentions this name. Bhavaprakasha (Chunekar and Pandey, 1986) describes rohita as a red
fish that is best for human consumption. Rohita (or lohita) means red. Hora (1951) suggests rohita as
Labeo fimbriatus Bl. instead of L. rohita Ham. or popularly called rohu, because the latter is of a
rather large size, and not of medium size as described by Someshvardeva. However, we do not
consider Hora’s reason sufficiently strong. Many other authorities have consistently maintained that
rohita is L. rohita. Rohita also has a name (tambada masa = red fish) in Marathi. We, therefore,
maintain that rohita should be identified as L. rohita, which is a very commonly found carp.
Sankuchaka. In Sanskrit, sankuchaka means one that contracts itself. Someshvardeva described this
fish as a marine and scaleless fish; size was not mentioned but because it is grouped with sharks, we
assume it to be large. Apte’s Sanskrit-English dictionary (Apte, 1965) mentions sankocha as a skatefish.
Hora (1951) did not try to identify the species. Since skates and rays are considered
interchangeable groups, we tried to widen our range for identification. We find the name sankusha
used in India for Dasyatis (Pastinachus) sephen Forsk. and also this fish is found commonly on the
west coast of India. We suggest D. sephen is sankuchaka.
Shringasora. This has been described as a marine and scaleless fish, which by implication is large
in size. Sora means shark and shringa means horns. Probably because of a printing error, we find the
table in Hora (1951) shows it to be a sawfish. Shringasora clearly fits in with a hammer-headed shark,
Sphyrna blochii C., which is found off the west coast of India.
Simhatundaka. This one has been described as a large and riverine fish, presumably scaleless.
Simhatundaka in Sanskrit would indicate lion-faced. A catfish with a ferocious appearance and
behavior would be the obvious candidate. Hora (1951) suggested Bagarius bagarius Ham., which is
ferocious and has under-hung mouth. It is called baghar (tiger-like) in some Indian languages. We
agree with Hora’s identification.
Sora. Someshvardeva described this one as a marine, scaleless, and obviously a large fish. No
meaning can be traced in Sanskrit. In Telugu, sora is used for any shark. Sora is the first name listed
by Someshvardeva and was clubbed with other sharks. It must be an impressively large fish
commonly seen in Indian seas. Hora (1951) believed that the name sora was used in plural sense for
several sharks. We suggest that the name sora could have been used for the largest shark, Galeocerdo
tigrinus N.H., found in both west and east coast waters.
Swarnamina. This has been described as an inland, scaly, medium-sized fish, which in Sanskrit
would mean a golden fish. Names such as sarana (similar to swarna, gold) in Bengal and Orissa and
kannuka (kanakam in Sanskrit also means gold) in Andhra help us to identify this barb fish as Barbus
sarana Ham. Hora (1951) too has identified this fish as B. sarana.
Thogyara. This has been described as an inland fish. Other details are missing. It has not been
possible to trace thogyara’s origin in Sanskrit. Hora (1951) failed to identify this fish. Taking a clue
from two local names, yerrathok-mosu in Telugu, and tharimeenu in Kannada, we tentatively suggest
that this fish is Cirrhinus reba Ham., a carp found in fresh waters all over India.
Tomara. This one has been described as a medium-sized marine fish and most likely, scaly. The
word tomara in Sanskrit means a spear-like weapon or a forceful stroke. Hora (1951) suggested that
tomara could be the garfish (needle fish) Belone annulata Day. We agree with Hora’s identification.
Tumbaya. This one is a scaly, medium-sized fish most likely inhabiting inland waters. Tumbaya
means similar to a long gourd. According to Hora (1951), tumbuki in Telugu means puffed cheeks.
Using the latter meaning Hora suggested the name Glossogobius giuris Ham., and we agree. This
species belongs to the group called gobies.
Vadisha. This has been described as a riverine, scaly, large fish. It was fed leaves and barley,
suggesting a “vegetarian” diet. Hora (1951) tentatively identified vadisha as Notopterus chitala Ham.,
which is carnivorous. The word vadisha can be a phonetic variant of badisha or balisha. Taking a clue
from the word balisha, which indicates strong or powerful. We suggest vadisha to be Acrossocheilus
hexagonolepsis McClell., which is a barb.
Vami. This is a fish that is most likely an inland fish. Someshvardeva made no mention about its size
or scales. Vamah in Sanskrit means a snake, vam means vomit, and vaama means crooked. Hora
(1951) was not able to identify the fish. Taking a clue from the Sanskrit meaning of vamah as snake,
we suggest that vami should be the snakehead, Channa gachua Ham., which is found in fresh waters,
has scales, and is a small fish.
Vanchi. This has been described as a scaly, medium-sized fish, which probably inhabits rivers. In
Sanskrit, vaanchhi means desired, vacha is a fish name, and vanch means to deceive. For some reason
Hora (1951) suggested that vanchi could be Silonopangasius taakri Sykes, which is a medium-sized
fish but is without scales. He ruled out Silonia silondia Sykes as vanchi, even though its name in
Telugu is wanjou, because it is large and usually found in northern India. Another species, however,
Silonia childreni Sykes is found in Godavari and Krishna rivers and is also called wanjou in Telugu.
We believe vanchi should be S. childreni. This species belongs to family Schilbeidae.
Vatagi. This one is an inland, scaly, and large fish. In Sanskrit vat indicates a string. Hora (1951) did
not identify this fish. We believe it should be Channa leucopunctatus Sykes. Though C.
leucopunctatus is a marine fish, it is known to be present inland in the Deccan and the length can be
92 cm. It is also a snakehead and has an elongated body that could be considered string-like.
Vidruva. This is a riverine, scaly, and small fish. In Sanskrit vidruva may indicate something moving
fast or frightened. Hora (1951) stated that this fish could belong to genera such as Chela, Rasbora,
Danio, etc. We believe vidruva should be Oxygaster clupeoides Bl., a carp that is found all over India
and is a fast-moving fish.
A complete list of all the above fishes with their Sanskrit and Latin names has been given in Table 1.
The fish food
Someshvardeva mentioned only a few fishes that must have been popular for angling. These fishes
were kahlava (Catla catla), rohita (Labeo rohita), vadisha (Acrossocheilus hexagonolepsis), kovakiya
(Pseudosciaena sina), pathina (Wallago attu), simhatundaka (Bagarius bagarius), and marila
(Channa marulius). Of these kahlava, rohita, and vadisha were fed with vegetarian items, kovakiya
with vegetarian and meat items, and pathina, simhatundaka, and marila were fed with flesh. Thus the
choice of food items is in line with our knowledge today.
Food items mentioned were: ground sesame, flours including roasted flours of chickpea (Cicer
arietinum), cooked rice, and roasted flour of safflower mixed with cooked rice.
We would like to quote here comments from Hora (1951), which are valid today.
“. . . Somesvara shows a greater insight into the feeding habits of the fishes by dividing them into
groups and then prescribing a suitable ground bait for each group or kind. Further Somesvara also
prescribes the limit in size for the morsel of each variety of fish. He wants the ground bait to be
prepared into balls but he also indicates that feeding should be done morning and evening from the
steps used for taking water. The bottom is probably not steeply shelving in this place and the balls do
not roll away. MacDonald (MacDonald, A.St.J. 1948. Circumventing the mahseer and other sporting
fish in India and Burma. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India) suggests a mixture of mud
with food but Somesvara feeds fishes on articles of food only. . . . On the whole the technique of
ground baiting seems to have been better developed in Somesvara’s time than at the present day.”
The fishing rope, rod, and bait
We think Someshvardeva has given an excellent description of how to make the ropes, required for
angling, from the local resources. He described materials from which ropes can be made of different
strengths, lengths, and thickness. Likewise a very useful description of the rods, hooks, baits, and
striking, and playing fish has been given.
Fish preparations
The thirteen verses (1524 –1536) basically describe the procedure to clean and cook the fish, which is
not different from what is done today. Preservation by salting cleaned fishes has also been mentioned.
Table 1. Names of fishes in Manasollasa and their Latin equivalents.
Sanskrit name Devnagari script Latin name
Bala bjlj Carcharhinus macloti Day
Chanvilocha cjNivjljocj Pristis microdon Latham
Dantapatala dntjpjhZlj Odonus niger Ruppel
Gagdhara gjhgDjr Xenentodon cancila Ham.
Gojjala gjoJJjlj Ompok bimaculatus Bl.
Kahlava k*ljvj Catla catla Ham.
Kantakara kqZkhr Plotosus canius Ham.
Kantharaya kqVryj Barilius bendelisis Ham.
Kaurattha kOrtTj Pseudosciaena diacanthus Lac.
Khandalipa xjqLhiljpj Mastacembelus armatus Lacel.
Khirida ixjrIL Rita gogra Sykes
Koraka kork Pomadasys hasta Bl.
Kovakiya kovjhkIyj Pseudosciaena sina C.
Kovasaka kovjhsjk Mystus seenghala Sykes
Mahashila mjHhwjIlj Tor tor Ham.
Marila mjirlj Channa marulius Ham.
Nadaka njLk Barbus curmuca Ham.
Pallaka pjlljk Hilsa ilisha Ham.
Pandimana pjqLImjhnj Chanos chanos Forsk.
Patalapicchaka pjhZljipjcCk Mystus aor Ham.
Pathina pjhVInj Wallago attu Schn.
Rohita roiHtj Labeo rohita Ham.
Sankuchaka sjNkucjk Dasyatis sephen Forsk.
Shringasora W\Ngjsjor Sphyrna blochii C.
Simhatundaka isjNHtjuqLk Bagarius bagarius Ham.
Sora sjor Galeocerdo tigrinus N.H.
Swarnamina svjqj[mjInj Barbus sarana Ham.
Thogyara Tjogyjr Cirrihinus reba Ham.
Tomara tjomjr Belone annulata Day
Tumbaya tjumbjyj Glossogobius giuris Ham.
Vadisha vjiLwj Acrossocheilus hexagonolepsis McClell.
Vami vjhmjI Channa gachua Ham.
Vanchi vjh#cjI Silonia childreni Sykes
Vatagi vjZgjI Channa leucopunctatus Sykes
Vidruva ivjd`uvj Oxygaster clupeoides Bl.
Conclusion
It is clear that a systematic body of knowledge of both marine and inland fishes had accumulated in
India by 12th century
AD. Recognition of this knowledge was never recorded properly either by the Mughals or by the
British. Hora (1951) tried to take this ancient knowledge to the fishery scientists of India. However,
Indian scientists in general were looking only “westwards” then and apparently did not take Hora’s
paper seriously. It is high time we look for documents that would reveal our wisdom on this subject. It
is relevant to mention here a statement from Hora (1951).
“In (my) account, I have assessed point by point Somesvara’s knowledge about the sporting fishes of
India and the art of angling by comparison with the most up-to-date work on angling for Indian
sporting fishes by MacDonald (reference cited earlier) recently published by the Bombay Natural
History Society. In the absence of records of any observational data, which must have formed the
basis of the knowledge embodied in Matsyavinoda, one must wonder as to the length of time that our
ancients must have taken to accumulate so much factual and deductive knowledge. In some respects,
it has not been surpassed even now.”
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